Research Review on Accuracy of Memory

Research Review on Accuracy of Memory Meghan Amber-Rose Turnbull Explain and evaluate what research has taught us about why our memories are not always accurate. Memory[p1] is a mechanism whereby the brain stores and retrieves information to be used in everyday life. Psychologists have come to understand the existence of memory, as we do not continuously re-learn information every time it is of need. This is what lead psychologist’s to develop three key processes in memory. These are encoding, storage and retrieval. Encoding processes take in information from the outside world using the senses. Each piece of information is given a unique code to enable it to be entered into the memory system. Storage processes use this coded information to enable the memory system to retain information. This coded information is stored as internal representations which come in varying forms such as words, faces, sounds etc. Retrieval processes enable access to the stored information and come in two forms, recognition and recall. Recognition matches coded information which is stored to what is being perceived in the outside world whereas recall (brings information that is stored to your attention.) involves searching memory stores. Recall is what helps you to remember where you last placed an object such as your wallet. These three memory processes work together, therefore, how well and how much information is encoded then determines how much is stored and retrieved (Brace, 2007, pp113-114). This essay will now explain and evaluate what research has taught us about why our memories are not always accurate. One possible reason for memory inaccuracy is the presence of neuropsychological impairment or accidental brain damage. Localization of function is a theoretical method that believes particular areas of the brain play a key role in functions such as memory. When studying this, psychologists use brain scanning technology such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Patients are asked to complete certain mental tasks during a scan. The scans can then pick up brain activity and pin point which part of the brain is not functioning correctly. This can enable psychologists to understand why or how their memory may not be accurate and help in patient’s recovery. Unfortunately for some, the damage may be too severe and incurable. This can be seen in patients suffering from Alzheimer’s and dementia. (Brace and Roth, 2007, pp144-145[p2]) Research conducted by (Martin) Conway and colleagues looked at how well students retained information, over a 12 year period, after completing a cognitive psychology course. The experiment tested for general overall knowledge of what was studied and they found that names were forgotten rather than principals and statistics. This is possibly due to less information being coded to a name than that of principals and statistics when information was originally taken in[p3]. This could be seen as a limitation as important information can be forgotten due to a fault in one of the key processes (in this case at encoding). Their study also found a significant strength as after 4 years the participant’s memories stabilized and what they were still able to recite at this point would potentially stay in their memory for life, meaning the participants know the information rather than remember it. (Brace and Roth, 2007, pp118) Other researchers that focused on the accuracy of memory were Loftus and Palmer (1974). They looked at the effect that leading questions can have on memory. They did this by conducting an experiment whereby participants were shown video clips of car accidents. Each participant was then asked a variation of the question â€Å"about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?† with the verb ‘hit’ being changed each time for a more violent verb such as smashed, collided and bumped. The participant’s estimates of speed were much higher when asked how fast a car was going when it ‘smashed’ into the other car. It seems that the more violent verb convinced the participants that the cars in that clip were going faster when they were all the same speed. In a similar second experiment, one third were asked â€Å"About how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other?†, one third were asked how fast they were going when the y ‘hit’ and a control group were not asked a question. After seven days all participants were then asked the question â€Å"did you see any broken glass?† Out of the participants that had been asked the more violent leading question using the word ‘smashed’, 32 per cent admitted to seeing broken glass, even though there had been no broken glass shown on the video clip. An advantage of the research conducted by Loftus and Palmer (1974), is that it gained a lot of knowledge into the misinformation effect. This means information that is given to a person after an event takes place can actually override (or merge with) the memory that they originally have due to the memory not being encoded properly[p4]. Yet, this can also be seen as a disadvantage as If memory can be influenced this easily using only leading questions, it could be used to effect witness testimonies and people can be made to remember events that they did not actually witness. (Brace, 200 7, pp133-134) There is also much to be said about the accuracy of autobiographical memories, which are episodes that an individual can remember from their life. This includes past experiences and biographical information. From this, Brown and Kulik (1977) devised the flashbulb memory. Flashbulb memories are formed when certain conditions, such as surprising and emotionally arousing events, are met and create detailed and stable memories. Brown and Kulik (1977) used insider viewpoints in their research and found that memories of events, such as the assassination of John F Kennedy and Martin Luther King, were highly detailed and much more accurate than other memories. A limitation to this area of research is that it depends solely on personal circumstance. What an individual finds, surprising, arousing and important will determine how well they will remember an event. For instance, the assassination of Martin Luther King registered a higher number of flashbulb memories with black North Americans tha n white North Americans. This means the accounts of white North Americans were less accurate (of the event) than the accounts of black North Americans. However, their research also showed a significant strength in memory recall as flashbulb memories store such a detailed and vivid account of what happened. When asked, participants could remember who they were with, where they were and exactly what they were doing when they learned of the surprising event. (Brace, 2007, pp140[p5]) Collective memories also play a part in how accurate recollections of past events can be. Jean Piaget (1960) spoke of his own experience of collective memory. Piaget was able to describe in detail an instance when a man tried to kidnap him as a child. Subsequently, at the age of fifteen Paiget’s nanny wrote to his family to admit that she had made the story up and the attempted kidnapping never took place. Fifty years on, Piaget could still remember the scratches the man had left on the face of his nanny during the supposed event. Paiget’s collective memory of the kidnapping is possibly due to family repeatedly discussing in detail what happened. Over a period of time, Piaget came to believe that he had witnessed this kidnapping and formed memories of what happened based on what others had told him. (An advantage of this is that) Piaget was able to recall this particular memory in so much detail after fifty years, showing that the information had been told was encoded and stored perfectly and thus was able to be retrieved. This instance shows how memory is not always accurate, as Piaget describes his memory of the kidnapping as being witnessed first-hand. Essentially, his memory of the event was fabricated from information he had been told by family members. (Brace, 2007, pp143[p6]) Research has shown that there are many factors that can affect the accuracy of our memory[p7]. However, these factors are dependent on individual and personal circumstance. The research of Conway (1991) stated that memory inaccuracies were due to a fault in one of the key processes. For instance, if there isn’t enough information taken in and coded it makes it highly difficult for the information to be retrieved in any detail. Piaget (1960) and Loftus and Palmer (1974) both focused on the effect that other people can have on influencing the memory of an individual (. Meaning) illustrating that others can make you believe you have witnessed a situation just by talking about it often enough or using leading questions and persuasive language . The research of Brown and Kulik (1977) concentrated more on personal circumstance. They found that how accurate a person’s memory is of a situation depends on how interesting, surprising or emotionally stimulating they, as a person, find the event. What also must be taken into consideration is the possibility of brain damage and neuropsychological impairment; this can affect the accuracy of memory as the part of the brain that is responsible for memory recall may be damaged in some way. To conclude, the research mentioned in this essay has given a vast pool of knowledge into why our memories are not always accurate. References Brace, N. and Roth, I. (2007) ‘Memory: structures, processes and skills’ In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, K. Thomas (Eds.), Mapping Psychology, Chapter 8 (2nd ed, pp. 113–145). Milton Keynes: The Open University. Brown, R. and Kulik, J. (1977) ‘Flashbulb memories’, Cognition, vol.5, pp.73-99[p8]. Conway, M.A., Cohen, G.M. and Stanhope, N. (1991) ‘On the very long-term retention of knowledge acquired through formal education: twelve years of cognitive psychology’, Journal of experimental psychology: General, vol.120, pp.395-409. Loftus, E.F. and Palmer, J.C. (1974) ‘Reconstruction of automobile destruction: an example of the interaction between language and memory’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, vol.13, pp.585-9. Piaget, J. (1960) Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood, New York, Norton [p1]A good introduction in terms of explaining what is involved in memory and the issue, but you need to state precisely how you plan to organise the essay. [p2]Note that individuals may also vary in memory function due to brain differences. [p3]This is a good point – names do not have a specific meaning nor do they relate to the person (except in some cultures) so are easily forgotten. [p4]In fact there is debate about the cause of the misinformation effect which could also be due to not attending at encoding, due to fear or misattributing the source of information so it is thought to be real (as with Piaget’s story and Crombag’s study of memories of an air crash.). [p5]You might have commented that some psychologists question how accurate flashbulb memories are. [p6]Like the memory of Loftus and Palmer’s participants – their memory was â€Å"reconstructed†. [p7]This conclusion is well focused on the evaluative part of the question – and summarises your points well. You might also have considered methodological issues. [p8]Don’t simply add references from the end of the chapter unless you have read them first hand. If you have read ABOUT them in the course book – you need only cite them in the main body of the essay.

The Benefits of XM Radio Essay -- Radio Technology Entertainment Essay

The Benefits of XM Radio Over the years, many people all over have listened to the radio for entertainment and information. Radio supplies news, sports, music, talk, and many other options with great ease. However, since television has become so popular lately, people look to it as an alternative to radio for the previously stated options. The reason for this can be linked to the redundancy that radio has encountered by not offering anything new and exciting for people to become interested about. Now, XM radio has solved this problem by giving people something new to look forward to by offering their services to anyone who wants to try something new. XM Radio uses satellites positioned in space to allow people to listen to the radio across the United States without having to be bothered with changing stations. This luxury has gotten consumers and analysts very excited and has been receiving a lot of hype in the media lately. The advanced methods of broadcasting will supply XM Radio with more appealing f eatures to listeners than existing entertainment. As a result, those who are bored with the current condition of radio entertainment may use XM more than FM and AM radio. The advanced technology that XM Radio uses is a big change from the old fashioned ways that FM and AM radio are broadcasted. XM Radio uses satellites in order to broadcast across the entire country with a clear signal. â€Å"XM satellites’ fixed orbits ensure a focused and consistent signal† (â€Å"Satellites† 2002). If the satellites need to be moved for any reason, no problems will occur with the broadcasting and ensures that the signals will not be lost (â€Å"Satellites† 2002). The ways in which were they were manufactured plays a big role in the quality of the signals that are sent to Earth. â€Å"The satellites were built by Boeing Satellite Systems, which is the world’s leading commercial manufacturer of satellites† (â€Å"Satellites† 2002). This was a smart decision by the makers of XM Radio because Boeing is such a well-respected company that it will ensure the confidence of needed consumers. Instead of having thousands and thousands of radio stations across the nation, XM radio uses a broadcast center in Washington, D.C. for the majority of its broadcasting. This will cut down costs of office space and employees, which in turn would decrease their budget. This center has â€Å"20 multi-function produ... ...ipped with some of the best-known names in car audio. These companies include Delphi, Delco Electronics Systems, Alpine Electronics, Clarion, Audiovox, Visteon, Pioneer, Panasonic, Sanyo, and Motorola (â€Å"Car Units† 2002). These audio systems will definitely help in the performance of the overall radio because the speakers are top of the line and provide better quality than any others. Also, it will most likely improve the sale of the systems since the name brands will attract more buyers. The improvements in radio will most likely attract people who are irritated by the difficulty of finding a station that suits their interests. It may take a while for this new product to become popular, but with the information that I have researched it is likely that it will catch on in the near future. Also, if this does catch on, then the number of people who listen to the radio instead of watching television should increase as the years go on. Some people think that XM Radio could take over FM and AM radio because of its overall superiority to them. Whether or not this happens, it is definitely a step forward in creating more luxuries for those who feel the need to be entertained.

The Dark Side of the Roaring Twenties

The Roaring Twenties, most of the things we hear about the twenties are of good, happy times and of advances in technology and medicine. When we picture the twenties, we picture people dancing, listening to jazz and driving Model Ts. Also, in the twenties, the pretty was quite prosperous. But, there was a dark side to the Roaring Twenties. Those years there were some troubling trends and events, which many forget when thinking of that decade; prohibition, organized crime, nativism and the return of the Ku Klux Klan. Ironically, the twenties are often thought of as a time with careless drinking, when actually, it was illegal in that decade to sell or consume alcohol. On January 16th, 1920, the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect. A ban on the manufacturing and distribution on alcohol was written into the United States Constitution. This ban was called Prohibition. People held mock funerals the day before the amendment came to pass. Some people and businesses even spent the weeks prior to the amend. ent stockpiling liquor. Prohibition came to be due to almost a century of effort that started with the temperance movement in the early nineteenth century. After the years of the American Revolution, there was a huge increase in drinking and alcohol consumption. Saloons began to pop up everywhere as hard working men tended to escape loneliness and exhaustion by drinking. Saloons also provided settings for other illegal activities such as prostitution and gambling. A number of people noticed the effects of alcohol consumption and began to try and stop it. First, they encouraged people to just limit their intake of alcohol; however, they eventually began to encourage complete abstinence. As time went on, these reformers went to political action and government intervention. Also, medical research began to show evidence on how alcohol consumption affected people’s health. Concern also arose about how much power breweries wielded as they pursued high profits. More groups, such as the Methodist Church, Women’s Christian Temperance Union, the Anti-Saloon League and the Prohibition Party began to join the movement against alcohol. All of these forces came together to help the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment. Prohibition caused a huge division in the people and citizens in the United States. One side supported the law, who were later identified as â€Å"Drys†, while the other side wanted to put an end to prohibition, identified as â€Å"Wets†. It was also very much disliked in areas with high immigrant populations. This resentment towards prohibition was due to the fact that it banned a practice that was acceptable in their own cultures. However, despite the law, people continued to drink. Some, who were too poor to afford liquor from bootleggers, resorted to brewing their own at home. The places where people would drink illegally were called speakeasies. There were also places called blind pigs, which were businesses that were designed to look legitimate, but housed a bar in a back room. To access these blind pigs and speakeasies, a password was typically required in order to ensure one wasn’t with, or associated, to law enforcement. Prohibition also led to a rise in organized crime. Organized crime did exist before prohibition, but gangs and mobsters saw another great area of profit with prohibition. By providing people who were willing to break the law with illegal liquor, they could make a fortune. But then, as more gangs began to compete, violence also increased. This is the time when the infamous gang leader, Al Capone, made his name. Eventually the atmosphere of lawlessness, violence and suspicion the prohibition created made people more and more uncomfortable. People then began to find the cost of prohibition too high and most did not see drinking, at least in moderation, as sinful. Prohibition finally ended in 1933 with the Twenty-first Amendment. Another issue that arose in the twenties was nativism. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, immigrants were welcomed into the United States because the country was growing and industrializing. Due to this, laborers were needed. Also, the United States was always proud of being a refuge for people fleeing hardship or mistreatment in their own countries, or looking for new opportunities for themselves and their children. Before 1890, most of the immigrants had come from the same countries as those who first settled in America. So they typically shared the same values as the original settlers. In the beginning of the twentieth century, most of the immigrants came from southern and eastern European countries. Some also came from Puerto Rico, the West Indies and Mexico. In contrast to the Protestant majority, these newer immigrants tended to be Catholics or Jews, and had different morals and values. By World War I, immigrants were pouring into the United States, and the majority of those immigrants were of this new variety. This alarmed the citizens on the United States. They felt their ways of life were threatened by the ways and beliefs of the newcomers. It was not just that the immigrants were economic competitors, or that their strange cultural practices threatened traditional values. It was also that they were thought to be harvesting dangerous and radical ideas about politics and social order. It was said they believed in socialism and anarchy. But most of the immigrants were too preoccupied by survival to worry about politics. They faced things such as poverty, mistreatment and struggled with learning a new language and fitting into a new foreign society. Nativism sentiment led to an event known as the Red Scare. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer became the leading figure in a movement promoting â€Å"one-hundred percent Americanism†. Palmer led a campaign against communists and other radicals and others who were thought to have the wrong ideas of America. Federal agents arrested more than four thousand suspects who were threatened with deportation, of which two hundred and forty-nine were sent back to Russia. Nativism also led to the rebirth and return of the Ku Klux Klan. In the previous century, the Klan was a group of white southerners who wreaked havoc on African Americans in an attempt to keep whites in control of the South after the Civil War. This time around though, they widened their focus to not only non-whites, but to non-Protestants as well. They also didn’t just stay in the southeastern states anymore, they spread all over the United States. Depending on where Klan members were located, they had different focuses. For example, members in New York primarily focused on Jews; in California, Japanese were targeted, while Mexicans were the victims in Texas. The Klan ran a campaign to recruit members and grew to about five million members, These members performed many of the same acts as the Klan did in the previous century such as; beatings, lynching and acts of intimidation (the most known being the burning of crosses on lawns). These acts spurred an investigation of the Klan in 1921, which, in turn, ended up giving publicity to the Klan and gaining them more members. The Ku Klux Klan gained more influence as some politicians began to support their cause. In 1924, however, the Klan’s numbers dwindled and their influence declined and they lost their legitimacy. All of these factors are not so widely thought about when thinking of the Roaring Twenties. But they brought much darkness to the decade and led to many events and trials that also contribute to the darkness. The twenties are masked by visions of dancing and driving cars. But the care-free and fun-loving thoughts of the twenties just disguise the dirty and grimy parts of them. From the lawlessness and organized crime provoked by prohibition to the hate crimes brought upon by nativism, there is no doubt that there was indeed a dark side to the Roaring Twenties.

Essay On Tupac - 1450 Words

Juliana Quintanilla Gary Greg Music 103 1 August 2017 Tupac Shakur Tupac Shakur was born in Harlem, New York on June 16, 1971, as Lesane Parish Crooks. Both his mother and father were members of the Black Panthers which was an African American organization formed to improve civil rights. At the age of 13, he began his acting career in the production, â€Å"Raisin in the Sun† at the Apollo Theater. Tupac’s mother was single mother two and struggled with money, forcing them to move around a lot and often stay in shelters.Tupac went to Baltimore School of Arts before dropping out and moving to Marin County in California at the age of 17. In Marin County, Tupac met Leila Steinberg, and later became his first manager. She helped him†¦show more content†¦and Thug Life Volume: 1. In his album, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z... he portrays his political and social views of the black community; in his album â€Å"Keep Ya Head Up† became a gold certified single The album Thug life: Volume 1 was by the group Thug Life w hich was started by Tupac and included Big Syke, Mopreme. The Rated R and Macadoshis. Due to controversial rap, the album had to be modified and re-recorded. The song â€Å"How long will They Mourn Me?† was later played in 1998 from 2Pac’s Greatest Hits Album. After these albums were released, many artists and record companies were reaching out to Tupac asking for advice and tips. Artists then began to follow Tupac and his ideas and he was named The Father of Rap. Artists began to rap about poverty, the police and other real life problems. At this time the police started to have a big impact in the songs. During his career rap became more and more popular, and he began to out out more albums such as Me Against The World and All Eyes On Me. During this success in the music industry, Tupac began to have troubles with one of his former friends, Biggie Smalls and the law Biggie and Tupac were good friends who did interviews together, sang together and hung out, but the friendship ended when Tupac was shot at a recording studio in New York, and believed that Biggie was behind the attack. He believed that Biggie wanted all the fame for himself since both were at the same popularity level. After the shooting,Show MoreRelated Tupac Essay1045 Words   |  5 PagesTupac When thinking of the Hip-Hop industry, one of the first names that comes to mind is Tupac Shakur. Shakur was born in the Bronx on June 16, 1971. He was reared by his mother Afeni Shakur who was an active member of the Black Panthers. Tupacs family later relocated to Oakland, California, where he spent much of his time on the street. As a kid, he was always getting himself into trouble, and he was very lonely. He started writing songs to keep himself out of trouble. An article fromRead MoreEssay On Tupac1329 Words   |  6 PagesTupac Shakur was a sensitive, precociously talented yet troubled soul who came to embrace the 1990s gangsta-rap aesthetic and paid the ultimate price — he was gunned down in Las Vegas on September 7, 1996 and died six days later. His murder has never been solved. He began his music career as a rebel with a cause — to articulate the travails and injustices endured by many African-Americans, often from a male point of view. His skill in doin g so made him a spokesperson not just for his own generationRead MoreEssay On Tupac1498 Words   |  6 PagesTupac Shakur, also known as 2pac and Makaveli, is a hip-hop icon. Not only was Tupac just a rapper, he was also a poet, actor, and a philosopher. Many people refer to him as a â€Å"Rap God† and â€Å"The King of Rap†. Tupac was well-known for his â€Å"Thug† image, rap skills, and his many conflicts. He changed the world, especially with his music and meaningful lyrics. 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Perhaps one of the most misunderstood rap, along with hipRead MoreTupac Shakur Essay1064 Words   |  5 PagesTupac Shakur Tupac Shakur was one of the most influential artist of our last decade. He not only made several albums, but was also a large role in many films and a poet. Millions of people bought and still buy his albums. He was a pioneer to gangster rap, and he sang about things that mattered. Although, he was a role model and was admired by many, he also had a lot of enemies, and in the end, his enemies over powered his fans by taking his life. 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His song â€Å"Changes† (based on Bruce Hornsbys The Way It Is) recorded in 1991 and produced in 1998 discussed many of the injustices the African American population face (Statistics Brain Research Institute, 2017). Focusing on racism, the war on drugs, the perpetuation of poverty, mass incarceration rate, and overall theRead MoreEssay on An Analysis of the Song Changes by Tupac1335 Words   |  6 PagesFisher Music Interpretation Essay 12/3/2011 Changes by Tupac Millions of people in the world listen to music for all different reasons. Most people all over the world listen to different genres of music in order to relax, but not too many people pay attention to the actual lyrics of a song. If you listen to the lyrics of a song you will realize that many songs have important messages or themes to them. An example of this is the lyrics of the song â€Å"Changes† by Tupac Shakur. If you listen to this